From the introduction:

This work is meant to provide a guide to the freshwater fishes of Iran. There are no modern keys to this fauna, some available books are incomplete or cursory treatments or outdated, and the detailed and diverse scientific literature is widely scattered in time, languages and journals. Iran lies at a region of major zoogeographical interchange and has a diverse and interesting ichthyofauna about which comparatively little is known. An accurate identification is a pre-requisite for further scientific studies and this website aims to serve that purpose and to be an introductory guide to the fishes. The guide is aimed at a mixed audience, including scientists familiar with ichthyology to whom some introductory sections of this work will be superfluous, and those whose knowledge of fishes is embryonic or who may have limited access to literature sources.

This work has been carried out over a period of over 30 years from my first arrival in Iran in January 1976. In that year, 7 articles were published strictly on Iranian fishes (3 on parasites, 1 on pesticides, 1 on fisheries, 1 describing the blind white fish and 1 a summary of the latter; 2 were in Farsi). In 2006, 160 articles on Iranian fishes appeared, along with many relevant works from neighbouring countries, works on the aquatic environment in Iran and works on taxonomy and systematics relevant to Iran. The study of fishes is now a very active field within Iran and the Middle East. Accordingly, 2006 is the last year that this work was updated although some systematic and taxonomic studies may still be incorporated.

Developments during the past two years confirm the trends already observed at the end of the 1990s: capture fisheries production is stagnating, aquaculture output is expanding and there are growing concerns with regard to the livelihoods of fishers and the sustainability of commercial catches and the aquatic ecosystems from which they are extracted. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2004 reports on several of these issues.

It is not only fishers and fish farmers who have these concerns; they are increasingly shared by civil society at large. Moreover, the importance of international trade in fish and fish products, combined with the trend for major fishing and trading companies to operate on a multinational basis, means that such issues are becoming global in nature – affecting a growing number of countries, be they large fish producers or large consumers of fish. It is heartening to note that governments and other stakeholders have begun to collaborate with their neighbours and partners in trade in an effort to find shared solutions.

Concrete examples of positive outcomes of this “globalization of concerns” are the establishment of new regional fishery management organizations and the strengthening of existing ones. It is probable that ongoing discussions among intergovernmental organizations on topics such as trade in endangered aquatic species, the use of subsidies in the fishing industry, and labour standards in fisheries will also result in agreements of overall benefit to world society.

Given the nature and tone of the international discussion on fishery issues and the developments observed during recent years, I believe that fishers and fish farmers, in collaboration with governments and other stakeholders, will overcome the obstacles they face currently and will succeed in ensuring sustainable fisheries and continued supplies of food fish at least at their present levels.

Science magazine (3 November 2006: Vol. 314. no. 5800, pp. 787 – 790 DOI: 10.1126/science.1132294) reported a less bright future: (from the reprint summary)

A Need for a Sea Change
The significance of the ocean’s declining diversity on humanity has been difficult to assess. In a series of meta-analyses, Worm et al. (p. 787; see the news story by Stokstad [a summary, the balance by subscription]) quantify how the loss of marine diversity on local, regional, and global scales has affected the functioning and stability of marine ecosystems, the flow of ecosystem services, and the rise of associated risks to humanity. Similar relationships occur between biodiversity change and ecosystem services at scales ranging from small squaremeter plots to entire ocean basins; this finding implies that small-scale experiments can be used to predict large-scale ocean change. At current rates of diversity loss, this analysis indicates that there will be no more viable fish or invertebrate species available to fisheries by 2050. However, the results also show that the trends in loss of species are still reversible.

The abstract is available, the article is by subscription. New Scientist magazine carry more freely available coverage of the results of Worm’s (et al) research.

Many fisheries scientists have been sceptical of the idea that damage to a few non-fish species could be a threat to major fish stocks. But this study demonstrates, for the first time, that commercial and ecological health go together in the ocean. “Every species matters.”

In a separate article, New Scientist report that striking the balance between the need to conserve wild stocks and economic imperatives continue to challenge policy makers and the fishing industry; leading to some unhappy compromises.

The abstract:

The various sea farming and sea ranching practices used in the People’s Republic of China are reviewed, based on published and unpublished information, statistical data and field experiences. The development of marine fisheries during the past 50 years is described. Following their decline caused by overfishing and the ecological degradation of the coastal environment, emphasis was shifted from marine capture fisheries to aquaculture-based operations, including farming and ranching of marine organisms both in inshore and offshore areas. The biology and culture of major representatives of five species groups (seaweed, molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms and fish), involving a total of 67 different species, are presented, together with detailed production statistics. The eight sea farming and ranching systems actually used in China are presented. Several aspects related to marine resources management for sea farming and ranching are discussed, such as legislation, research on genetics and biodiversity, health management and marine habitat rehabilitation. Monitoring and evaluation according to biological, environmental and socio-economic standards are briefly considered.

From the introduction:

A series of management proposals were developed to ensure the continuation of the coconut crab on Niue. A summary of the recommendations follows:

1. No female coconut crabs with large orange-tinted abdomens or bearing external eggs to be taken or interfered with.
2. Introduction of a minimum legal hunting size of 36mm thoracic length for all coconut crabs (includes providing a size-guide for hunters to use in the field to size crabs).
3. Banning of all coconut crab exports.
4. Introduction of closed hunting seasons.
5. A comprehensive public awareness campaign (involving production of a large coconut crab conservation poster and educational video movie).
6. Establishment of formal coconut crab sanctuaries.
7. Banning use of dogs by coconut crab hunters.
8. Instigation of a coconut crab monitoring programme.
9. Preservation of coconut crab habitat.

Its large size (up to 1 metre) and land-based behaviours suggest Coconut Crab is a species with the potential for aquaculture, but there is very little published research available. It has been noted that wild populations of Coconut Crab are shrinking in the Cook Islands. H. H. Taylor, P. Greenaway, and S. Morris published a report (1993) in the Journal of Experimental Biology entitled Adaptations to a Terrestrial Existence by the Robber Crab Birgus latro – osmotic and ionic regulation on freshwater and saline drinking regimens.

This multidisciplinary glossary has been prepared by the Inland Water Resources and Aquaculture Service (FIRI) of FAO Fisheries Department, under the coordination of Valerio Crespi.

The primary objectives of this glossary are

1. to serve as a reference to fish farmers, consultants, administrators, policy makers, developers, engineers, agriculturists, economists, environmentalists and anybody interested in aquaculture; and
2. to facilitate communication among experts and scientists involved in aquaculture research and development.

In fact, some 300 algae and related species were identified from work done at the original National Renewable Energy Laboratory study ponds in California, Hawaii, and at Roswell, New Mexico. The study found the process was costly compared with fossil fuel at the time (1998) but the cost difference has significantly reduced or disappeared these days. The closeout report (authored by J. Sheehan, T.G. Dunahay, J.R. Benemann, P.G. Roessler, and J.C. Weissman) is a weighty 328 pages long and is available as a .pdf for free download.

The abstract: The Aquatic Species Program was a relatively small research effort intended to look at the use of aquatic plants as sources of energy. Its history dates back to 1978, but much of the research from 1978 to 1982 focused on using algae to produce hydrogen. The program switched emphasis to other transportation fuels, particularly biodiesel, beginning in the early 1980′s. This report summarizes the research activities carried out from 1980 to 1996, with an emphasis on algae for biodiesel production.

From the report:

High oil-producing algae can be used to produce biodiesel, a chemically modified natural oil that is emerging as an exciting new option for diesel engines. At the same time, algae technology provides a means for recycling waste carbon from fossil fuel combustion. Algal biodiesel is one of the only avenues available for high-volume re-use of CO2 generated in power plants. It is a technology that marries the potential need for carbon disposal in the electric utility industry with the need for clean-burning alternatives to petroleum in the transportation sector.

Freeengergy news reports there is significant international interest in the production of biofuels using aquatic plant species. Michael Briggs, from the University of New Hampshire, Physics Department, has published a report entitled Widescale Biodiesel Production from Algae. From the report:

For any biofuel to succeed at replacing a large quantity of petroleum, the yield of fuel per acre needs to be as high as possible. At heart, biofuels are a form of solar energy, as plants use photosynthesis to convert solar energy into chemical energy stored in the form of oils, carbohydrates, proteins, etc.. The more efficient a particular plant is at converting that solar energy into chemical energy, the better it is from a biofuels perspective. Among the most photosynthetically efficient plants are various types of algaes.

From the introduction: A One Dollar Compund Microscope:

Microscopes may be thought of as very intricate and mysterious instruments but in reality, they are not as complicated as one may think. Building this simple instrument is not only a fun project, it will help you understand how microscopes work. This microscope, which will cost you no more than about a dollar or so to build, is essentially identical to the expensive microscopes that professionals use. Through this project you will gain an appreciation for the need of using corrective optics to reduce the aberrations. Obviously, the performance of this simple microscope cannot be compared with those more expensive professional instruments, which will produce much clearer and brighter images. Nonetheless, it should compare well to the low-cost microscopes that are sold in the toy or hobby shops. It is our experience that so called “toy microscopes” are a real disaster because they commonly give little more than diffuse images or shadows, and can give a young person a bad impression about microscopes consequently causing them to loose interest in these instruments. However, an instrument of suitable quality has the potential of sparking a young person’s interest and opening up a world of discovery to them.

From the abstract:

The iron requirement of the guppy, Poecilia reticulata Peters, was determined by feeding them eight different levels of iron (0.0, 0.010, 0.020, 0.040, 0.080, 0.320, and 0.640 g/kg dry diet) for fifteen weeks. Growth and feed conversion was not significantly affected by the dietary iron. The red blood cell count, hemoglobin content, and hematocrit value was significantly reduced in fish fed an iron-deficient diet. Iron, copper and zinc content of the liver, spleen, kidney, blood, skin and muscle, heart, gills, and ovary was determined. The iron content was significantly lower in fish fed the iron-deficient diet while the copper content was significantly elevated. However, the zinc content in the organs was not affected by the levels of iron in the diets. the level of iron required by the guppy to prevent microcytic, hypochromic anemia was found to be 0.080 g/kg of diet.

From the summary:

Duckweeds have received research attention because of their great potential to remove mineral contaminants from waste waters emanating from sewage works, intensive animal industries or from intensive irrigated crop production. Duckweeds need to be managed, protected from wind, maintained at an optimum density by judicious and regular harvesting and fertilised to balance nutrient concentrations in water to obtain optimal growth rates. When effectively managed in this way duckweeds yield 10-30 ton DM/ha/year containing up to 43% crude protein, 5% lipids and a highly digestible dry matter.

Duckweeds have been fed to animals and fish to complement diets, largely to provide a protein of high biological value. Fish production can be stimulated by feeding duckweed to the extent that yields can be increased from a few hundred kilograms per hectare/year to 10 tonnes/ha/year.

Mature poultry can utilise duckweed as a substitute for vegetable protein in cereal grain based diets whereas very young chickens suffered a small weight gain reduction by such substitution. Pigs can use duckweed as a protein/energy source with slightly less efficiency than soyabean meal.

Little work has been done on duckweed meals as supplements to forages given to ruminants, but there appears to be considerable scope for its use as a mineral (particularly P) and N source. The protein of duckweeds requires treatment to protect it from microbial degradation in the rumen in order to provide protein directly to the animal.

The combination of crop residues and fresh duckweeds in a diet for ruminants appears to provide a balance of nutrients capable of optimising rumen microbial fermentative capacity. These diets can, therefore, be potentially exploited in cattle, sheep and goat production systems particularly by small farmers in tropical developing countries.

The topics comprehensively covered include micro algae, rotifers, artemia, zooplankton, cladocerans (daphnia and moina), nematodes and trochophora larvae.

From the introduction:

Whereas in the 1970s the production of farmed marine finfish and shrimp relied almost exclusively on the capture of wild fry for subsequent stocking and on-growing in ponds, tanks or cages, the complete domestication of many marine and brackishwater aquaculture species was only achieved during the last two decades. However, since then the controlled production of larvae from captive broodstock, or in other words the hatchery production of fry, has now become a routine operation for most cultivated fish and shellfish species; billions of fish and shellfish larvae (i.e. bivalve molluscs, penaeid shrimp, salmonids, European seabass, Gilthead seabream etc.) currently being produced within hatcheries all over the world.

The cultivation of larvae is generally carried out under controlled hatchery conditions and usually requires specific culture techniques which are normally different from conventional nursery and grow-out procedures, and especially with respect to husbandry techniques, feeding strategies, and microbial control. The main reason for this is that the developing larvae are usually very small, extremely fragile, and generally not physiologically fully developed. For example, their small size (ie. small mouth size), the uncompleted development of their perception organs (ie. eyes, chemoreceptors) and digestive system, are limiting factors in proper feed selection and use during the early first-feeding or start-feeding period. Moreover, in species such as shrimp, these are not the only problems as the developing larvae also have to pass through different larval stages, eventually changing from a herbivorous filter feeding behaviour to a carnivorous hunting behaviour. It is perhaps not surprising therefore that larval nutrition, and in particular that of the sensitive first-feeding larvae, has become one of the major bottlenecks preventing the full commercialization of many farmed fish and shellfish species.