aquaculture

Nicolas R. Bury, Paul A. Walker, and Chris N. Glover from the King’s College London, School of Health and Life Sciences, have published a report entitled Nutritive metal uptake in teleost fish. From the abstract:

Transition metals are essential for health, forming integral components of proteins involved in all aspects of biological function. However, in excess these metals are potentially toxic, and to maintain metal homeostasis organisms must tightly coordinate metal acquisition and excretion. The diet is the main source for essential metals, but in aquatic organisms an alternative uptake route is available from the water. This review will assess physiological, pharmacological and recent molecular evidence to outline possible uptake pathways in the gills and intestine of teleost fish involved in the acquisition of three of the most abundant transition metals necessary for life; iron, copper, and zinc.

P. Carriquiriborde (from the Environmental Research Centre, National University of La Plata-CONICET, La Plata, Argentina), R. D. Handy, and S. J. Davies (School of Biological Sciences, University of Plymouth, UK), have published a report entitled: Physiological modulation of iron metabolism in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed low and high iron diets. From the abstract:

Iron (Fe) is an essential element, but Fe metabolism is poorly described in fish and the role of ferrireductase and transferrin in iron regulation by teleosts is unknown. The aim of the present study was to provide an overview of the strategy for Fe handling in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss.

J. Burke and R. D. Handy (again, from the School of Biological Sciences, University of Plymouth, UK), have published a report entitled: Sodium-sensitive and -insensitive copper accumulation by isolated intestinal cells of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. From the abstract:

The pathway for copper (Cu) uptake across the mucosal membrane into intestinal cells has not been elucidated in fish. Copper accumulation in freshly isolated intestinal cells from rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss was measured after exposure to 0–800 µmol l^–1 CuSO₄ for 15 min.

The Native Fish Conservancy is about preserving the North American aquatic heritage. A group of like-minded conservationists, they are seeking other people, willing to donate time and skills to the ongoing development and production of the e-newsletter, the web site, and marketing. The Native Fish Conservancy is a not-for-profit, volunteer run organisation. Although their emphasis is on North American species, no doubt they would welcome international members. From a more commercial aquacultural perspective, a lot can be learned from people who keep fish as a hobby – people who have the time and resources to carefully develop breeding, feeding, and raising strategies that could be scaled into full scale commercial enterprises.

Brian Coad has published a substantial work in the Freshwater Fishes of Iran.

From the introduction:

This work is meant to provide a guide to the freshwater fishes of Iran. There are no modern keys to this fauna, some available books are incomplete or cursory treatments or outdated, and the detailed and diverse scientific literature is widely scattered in time, languages and journals. Iran lies at a region of major zoogeographical interchange and has a diverse and interesting ichthyofauna about which comparatively little is known. An accurate identification is a pre-requisite for further scientific studies and this website aims to serve that purpose and to be an introductory guide to the fishes. The guide is aimed at a mixed audience, including scientists familiar with ichthyology to whom some introductory sections of this work will be superfluous, and those whose knowledge of fishes is embryonic or who may have limited access to literature sources.

This work has been carried out over a period of over 30 years from my first arrival in Iran in January 1976. In that year, 7 articles were published strictly on Iranian fishes (3 on parasites, 1 on pesticides, 1 on fisheries, 1 describing the blind white fish and 1 a summary of the latter; 2 were in Farsi). In 2006, 160 articles on Iranian fishes appeared, along with many relevant works from neighbouring countries, works on the aquatic environment in Iran and works on taxonomy and systematics relevant to Iran. The study of fishes is now a very active field within Iran and the Middle East. Accordingly, 2006 is the last year that this work was updated although some systematic and taxonomic studies may still be incorporated.

Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia (VHS) was initially noted as a disease of cultured European rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). The disease has been noted amongst marine species, notably farmed turbot (Germany, Scotland and Ireland), but until relatively recently (approximately Spring 2005), appears to have been restricted to Europe. Dr. Robert S. Bakal, of the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service’s Division of the National Fish Hatchery System, reports from a conference on VHS held in August 2006,

…leading expert on VHS in the United States, Jim Winton of the US Geological Survey, indicated that the VHS virus exists in four strains, with a single, unique sub-strain occurring in the Great Lakes. The VHS virus has been known in Europe, Japan, and the coasts of the U.S. for many years; how it came to occur in the Great Lakes is not known. Winton speculates that it may have originated in ballast water from ocean-going ships sailing into the Great Lakes, or that it may have hitchhiked in shipments of hatchery-raised fish.

According to the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC),

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) virus is a serious pathogen of fresh and saltwater fish that is causing an emerging disease in the Great Lakes region of the United States and Canada. VHS virus is a rhabdovirus (rod shaped virus) that affects fish of all size and age ranges. It does not pose any threat to human health. VHS can cause hemorrhaging of fish tissue, including internal organs, and can cause the death of infected fish. Once a fish is infected with VHS, there is no known cure. Not all infected fish develop the disease, but they can carry and spread the disease to other fish. VHS has been blamed for fish kills in Lake Huron, Lake St. Clair (MI), Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, the St. Lawrence River and Conesus Lake (Western NY). The World Organization of Animal Health has categorized VHS as a transmissible disease with the potential for profound socio-economic consequences. Because of this, they list VHS as a disease that should be reported to the international community as an exceptional epidemiological (study of diseases in large populations) occurrence.

The NYSDEC has released revised Emergency Regulations Adopted to Prevent Spread of VHS.

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) note the following species are susceptable: Atlantic cod Gadus morhua, Black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus, Bluegill Lepomis macrochirus, Bluntnose minnow Pimephales notatus, Brown bullhead Ictalurus nebulosus, Brown trout Salmo trutta, Burbot Lota lota, Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus, Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch, Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta, Emerald shiner Notropis atherinoides, Freshwater drum Aplodinotus grunniens, Gizzard shad Dorosoma cepedianum, Grayling Thymallus thymallus, Haddock Gadus aeglefinus, Herring Clupea spp, Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus, Largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides, Muskellunge Esox masquinongy, Pacific cod Gadus macrocephalus, Pike Esox lucius, Pink salmon Onchorhynchus gorbuscha, Pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus, Rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss, Redhorse sucker Moxostoma spp, Rock bass Ambloplites rupestris, Rockling Onos mustelus, Round goby Neogobius melanostomus, Smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieu, Sprat Sprattus spp, Turbot Scophthalmus maximus, Walleye Sander vitreus, White bass Morone chrysops, White perch Morone americana, Whitefish Coregonus spp, Yellow perch Perca flavescens.

APHIS has also released the Amended Federal Order Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia (VHS) dated May 4, 2007. The purpose of this Federal Order is to prevent the spread of viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) into aquaculture facilities. Also refer to the APHIS July 2006 Emerging Disease Notice – Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia in the Great Lakes for further analysis.

Research reports published from the Scottish Fisheries Research Services may serve to provide management options:
Viral Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (VHS) – from the abstract:

Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia (VHS) was diagnosed inrainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) at a farm in Englandon 26 May 2006. VHS is a notifiable disease in the UK and a List II disease under European Directive 91/67/EEC. Investigations into the source and potential spread of the disease are being carried out by Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas) in England and Wales, and by Fisheries Research Services (FRS) in Scotland. VHS has occurred once before in the UK, in 1994, affecting a single turbot farm. The disease was successfully eradicated on that occasion. VHS has no implications for human health.

Risks to Wild Freshwater Fisheries from Viral Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (VHS) – from the abstract:

There is a risk of transfer of VHSV from farmed to wild freshwater fish species and vice versa. There is evidence that a reservoir of infection may be created in wild freshwater fish species. This may pose a risk of re-infection of farms (eg rainbow trout). There are no reports of VHSV infection leading to significant disease outbreaks in wild freshwater fish stocks. Based on evidence from outbreaks in farms and experimental evidence, free living rainbow trout, brown trout, whitefish, grayling and pike may be at risk of disease. Available evidence suggests a high infection pressure would be required to initiate a disease outbreak in wild fish (eg shedding of virus from an infected farm).

Disinfection guide version IV: practical steps to prevent the introduction and minimise transmission of diseases of fish – from the abstract:

Emerging diseases have had a significant impact on development of the Scottish aquaculture industry, highlighting the importance of preventing their introduction and minimising their transmission. The risk of disease spread is reduced by the implementation of good sanitary practices by fish farmers, and fisheries and the application of effluent disinfection systems in the processing industry. To maintain healthy fish stocks and minimise the introduction and spread of disease, the aquaculture industry should ensure best practice on farm sites, during transportation of live or dead fish and equipment, at the processing plant and during subsequent effluent and waste disposal. For an assessment of the risks associated with specific tasks, reference should be made to the Final Report of the Joint Government/ Industry Working Group on Infectious Salmon Anaemia (ISA) available from the Fisheries Research Services (FRS) web site, at www.frs-scotland.gov.uk. The protocols described in this guide are based upon current scientific knowledge and practical experience and will continue to be developed as the needs of industry change. This guide is intended for distribution to relevant industry personnel.

Grass carp, or white amur (Ctenopharyngodon idella) are originally from China. They are a different species from the common carp. Aptly named, grass carp feed on vegetation, and will consume pelleted food when available. They can grow to 35 kg, however they rarely exceed 10 kg when stocked in ponds.

Kenneth Williams and Glen Gebhart have published a report entitled Controlling Aquatic Vegetation with Grass Carp. From the introduction:

Excess aquatic vegetation causes problems in both aquaculture ponds and in farm ponds used for either sport or food fish production. The main problems caused by rooted and filamentous aquatic vegetation in aquaculture ponds are: interference with fish harvest operations, use of nutrients that could be more efficiently utilized by phytoplankton for dissolved oxygen production, reduction of water circulation that increases stratification and lowers dissolved oxygen levels. Excess aquatic vegetation in farm ponds interferes with hook and line harvest and increases the possibility of overpopulated, stunted forage fish populations, and reduces the aesthetic value of the pond for swimming and recreation. Grass carp are used to great advantage in both situations.

Grass carp do not breed easily in ponds, in their natural environment preferring swift moving water. Kenneth Williams, again, has published information on Grass Carp Propagation. From the introduction:

Spawning does not occur in ponds and lakes. Reproductive organs reach an incomplete state of development and become dormant. As water temperature rises above 80 degrees F. eggs and milt are resorbed into the fish.

Natural spawning conditions do not exist for grass carp in the United States with the possible exception of the Mississippi river. Successful grass carp spawning and hatching requires a thorough knowledge of the fish, healthy brood stock, gentle handling and an understanding of induced hormonal spawning techniques.

Michael P. Masser has published a document July 2002, entitled Using Grass Carp in Aquaculture and Private Impoundments. From the abstract:

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in cooperation with Auburn University, first introduced grass carp into the U.S. in 1963 to investigate their usefulness in controlling aquatic vegetation. No native North American species of fish is as strictly herbivorous as the grass carp. Therefore, there are no native species available for aquatic vegetation management. Grass carp have proven to be effective in controlling many species of algae and submerged aquatic vegetation.

Larry Sanders, Jan Jeffrey Hoover, and K. Jack Killgore have published a 1991 report entitled Triploid Grass Carp as a Biological Control of Aquatic Vegetation. Triploid grass carp are sterile, thus eliminating the concern of the species forming sustainable, breeding populations. The article reviews

the development and biology of the triploid grass carp and provides recommendations for its use as a biological control of nuisance aquatic vegetation. Triploid and diploid grass carp are morphologically identical and, reproduction notwithstanding, are assumed ecologically similar. Therefore, most data obtained from studies of diploid fish should be applicable to triploid fish.

Aquaculture CRSP report on the Polyculture of Grass Carp and Nile Tilapia with Napier Grass as the Sole Nutrient Input in the Subtropical Climate of Nepal. The objectives of the research:
1) Evaluate the growth of grass carp and tilapia fed with napier grass in polyculture.
2) Evaluate the nutrient and water quality regimes of pond water.
3) Determine the composition of foods consumed by Nile tilapia.
4) Determine the optimal ratio of grass carp to Nile tilapia in polyculture.

The FAO have published a summary of grass carp culture entitled Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme Ctenopharyngodon idella. As part of a section on status and trends, they observe:

Grass carp not only grow quickly but have a low requirement for dietary protein. They can be produced at low cost by feeding them with aquatic weeds, terrestrial grasses and by-products from grain processing and vegetable oil extraction. Seed can be produced through induced breeding at a large scale and very low cost. The culture of grass carp can be well integrated into crop farming and animal husbandry, to maximize the utilization of natural resources. On the other hand, it is a large fish without fine inter-muscular bones. It is acceptable to consumers in many countries and it very likely has good potential for development. The market for grass carp is close to saturation in the eastern part of China, where aquaculture is well developed now. However, there is still a considerable potential market in central and western China and many other developing countries.