From Chapter 1:

Fishing is one of the oldest ways by which people have fed themselves and their families. Except for gathering shellfish by hand and spearing fish, primitive trapping is probably the oldest form of fishing.

In early times, flowing water caused by tidal movement and changes in river and lake levels were probably used to trap fish behind rudimentary barriers, often made from sticks and stones. It is likely that early humans found that fish catches could be improved by driving fish into these barriers. They would have found that catches from these barriers decreased over time, as fish became accustomed to them, and would have had to move the traps to fresh areas where more fish could be caught. It would have been hard work to construct new traps, either by moving stones from the old trap or finding new ones. Primitive fishers probably tried making barriers from lighter, more readily available material such as tree branches, brush and vines. This led to the fishers inventing lighter, movable traps made from brush and nets made from vines which they could carry with them when they moved to new areas. They may even have tried bigger, more complicated corral-type fish traps in lakes, rivers and coastal waters.

The authors, the Committee on Assessment of Technology and Opportunities for Marine Aquaculture in the United States, and the Marine Board, Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems, National Research Council appear to have completed a comprehensive job – the Table of Contents:

Front Matter i-xii
Executive Summary 1-8
Introduction 9-19
Status of Aquaculture 20-63
Policy Issues 64-91
Environmental Issues 92-115
Engineering and Research 116-157
Information Exchange, Technology Transfer, and Education 158-168
Conclusions and Recommendations 169-177
Bibliography 178-205
Appendix A: Review of World Aquaculture 206-231
Appendix B: Freshwater Aquaculture in the United States 232-240
Appendix C: Federal Marine Aquaculture Policy 241-152
Appendix D: Sociocultural Aspects of Domestic Marine Aquaculture 253-268
Appendix E: Committee Biographies 269-273
Appendix F: Participants in Special Sessions 274-276
Index 277-290

The catalog covers more than 53,000 species and subspecies, over 10,000 genera and subgenera, and includes in excess of 16,000 bibliographic references. Entries for species, for example, consist of species/subspecies name, genus, author, date, publication, pages, figures, type locality, location of type specimen(s), current status (with references), family/subfamily, and important publication, taxonomic, or nomenclatural notes. Nearly all original descriptions have been examined, and much effort has gone into determining the location of type specimens.

The Genera are updated from Eschmeyer’s 1990 Genera of Recent Fishes. Both genera and species are listed in a classification using recent taxonomic schemes. Also included are a lengthy list of museum acronyms, an interpretation of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, and Opinions of the International Commission involving fishes.

The Catalog of Fishes consists of three hardbound volumes of 900-1000 pages each, along with a CD-ROM (not sold seperately). This work is an essential reference for taxonomists, scientific historians, and for any specialist dealing with fishes.

Developments during the past two years confirm the trends already observed at the end of the 1990s: capture fisheries production is stagnating, aquaculture output is expanding and there are growing concerns with regard to the livelihoods of fishers and the sustainability of commercial catches and the aquatic ecosystems from which they are extracted. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2004 reports on several of these issues.

It is not only fishers and fish farmers who have these concerns; they are increasingly shared by civil society at large. Moreover, the importance of international trade in fish and fish products, combined with the trend for major fishing and trading companies to operate on a multinational basis, means that such issues are becoming global in nature – affecting a growing number of countries, be they large fish producers or large consumers of fish. It is heartening to note that governments and other stakeholders have begun to collaborate with their neighbours and partners in trade in an effort to find shared solutions.

Concrete examples of positive outcomes of this “globalization of concerns” are the establishment of new regional fishery management organizations and the strengthening of existing ones. It is probable that ongoing discussions among intergovernmental organizations on topics such as trade in endangered aquatic species, the use of subsidies in the fishing industry, and labour standards in fisheries will also result in agreements of overall benefit to world society.

Given the nature and tone of the international discussion on fishery issues and the developments observed during recent years, I believe that fishers and fish farmers, in collaboration with governments and other stakeholders, will overcome the obstacles they face currently and will succeed in ensuring sustainable fisheries and continued supplies of food fish at least at their present levels.

Science magazine (3 November 2006: Vol. 314. no. 5800, pp. 787 – 790 DOI: 10.1126/science.1132294) reported a less bright future: (from the reprint summary)

A Need for a Sea Change
The significance of the ocean’s declining diversity on humanity has been difficult to assess. In a series of meta-analyses, Worm et al. (p. 787; see the news story by Stokstad [a summary, the balance by subscription]) quantify how the loss of marine diversity on local, regional, and global scales has affected the functioning and stability of marine ecosystems, the flow of ecosystem services, and the rise of associated risks to humanity. Similar relationships occur between biodiversity change and ecosystem services at scales ranging from small squaremeter plots to entire ocean basins; this finding implies that small-scale experiments can be used to predict large-scale ocean change. At current rates of diversity loss, this analysis indicates that there will be no more viable fish or invertebrate species available to fisheries by 2050. However, the results also show that the trends in loss of species are still reversible.

The abstract is available, the article is by subscription. New Scientist magazine carry more freely available coverage of the results of Worm’s (et al) research.

Many fisheries scientists have been sceptical of the idea that damage to a few non-fish species could be a threat to major fish stocks. But this study demonstrates, for the first time, that commercial and ecological health go together in the ocean. “Every species matters.”

In a separate article, New Scientist report that striking the balance between the need to conserve wild stocks and economic imperatives continue to challenge policy makers and the fishing industry; leading to some unhappy compromises.

From the preface and introduction:

A National Rice–Fish Farming Systems Symposium was held in China at the Freshwater Fisheries Research Centre of the Chinese Academy of Fisheries Sciences in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, 4–8 October 1988. China has had a long history of rice–fish farming. As rural areas have been industrialized in recent years, rice–fish farming has gained attention because it is an organic method that combines rice and fish production while maximizing labour and ricefield resources.

Rice has always been the number one grain crop in China in terms of both area and yield. During the 1950s, the tradition of rice–fish farming developed substantially but the benefits were not significant. Fish harvests were poor because the method was based only on traditional experiences and technical difficulties were encountered. However, rice–fish farming developed rapidly and by 1988, 800 000 ha were being harvested with a average yield of 133 kg/ha. In some areas, yields exceeded 3750 kg/ha and many farmers harvested 15 000 kg of rice and 1500 kg of fish per hectare. The incomes of these farmers increased considerably. The techniques of rice–fish farming improved markedly as additional skill and experience were acquired.

Research was focused on the common needs of fish and rice for water, light, and nutrition under local conditions. Many new techniques were developed to suit various locations: ridge and ditch systems; semidry land; ditch manure pits; ditches with floating water; and rice–duckweed–fish systems.

Rice–fish farming is no longer limited to the household economy and to production for personal or family consumption. It is now part of farmland improvement, soil improvement, and environmental protection. Rice–fish farming has increased the productivity of ricefields and is fast becoming an important part of the commodity economy. It has also played a significant role in reforming the structure of rural industries.

The topics comprehensively covered include micro algae, rotifers, artemia, zooplankton, cladocerans (daphnia and moina), nematodes and trochophora larvae.

From the introduction:

Whereas in the 1970s the production of farmed marine finfish and shrimp relied almost exclusively on the capture of wild fry for subsequent stocking and on-growing in ponds, tanks or cages, the complete domestication of many marine and brackishwater aquaculture species was only achieved during the last two decades. However, since then the controlled production of larvae from captive broodstock, or in other words the hatchery production of fry, has now become a routine operation for most cultivated fish and shellfish species; billions of fish and shellfish larvae (i.e. bivalve molluscs, penaeid shrimp, salmonids, European seabass, Gilthead seabream etc.) currently being produced within hatcheries all over the world.

The cultivation of larvae is generally carried out under controlled hatchery conditions and usually requires specific culture techniques which are normally different from conventional nursery and grow-out procedures, and especially with respect to husbandry techniques, feeding strategies, and microbial control. The main reason for this is that the developing larvae are usually very small, extremely fragile, and generally not physiologically fully developed. For example, their small size (ie. small mouth size), the uncompleted development of their perception organs (ie. eyes, chemoreceptors) and digestive system, are limiting factors in proper feed selection and use during the early first-feeding or start-feeding period. Moreover, in species such as shrimp, these are not the only problems as the developing larvae also have to pass through different larval stages, eventually changing from a herbivorous filter feeding behaviour to a carnivorous hunting behaviour. It is perhaps not surprising therefore that larval nutrition, and in particular that of the sensitive first-feeding larvae, has become one of the major bottlenecks preventing the full commercialization of many farmed fish and shellfish species.

This is based on a number of advantages of this species over many other crustaceans. It adapts to a relatively wide range of temperature from a minimum of 15 to a maximum of 35°C. This species has a relatively short larval life. It is also a fast growing species. Fast growing individuals reach market size in about 7–8 months, and the meat is of high quality in terms of tests and texture.

Food is normally the largest single item in the running expenditure of a prawn hatchery or prawn farm. If prawns are held in artificial confinement where natural food are absent or limited, an external food source should be added. For example, the external food of freshwater prawn larvae that are held in tanks may consist of live food (nauplii of brine shrimp) or artificial food (fish egg, fish flesh, formulated feeds, etc.)

The production of freshwater prawn stocked in pond depends on the ability of the environment to produce natural food. Various factors such as soil and water fertility, water temperature and intensity of solar radiation affect the production level of natural food in the pond. However, for maximum rate of performance, the supplemental feeding programme is supposed to be important. Hence, the knowledge of nutrient requirements, the preparation of suitable feeds from the local available ingredients, feeding techniques, and the cost effectiveness of prepared feeds is of paramount importance to commercial success.

The FOA have published a free report from November 1986 (available online) on the Optimum Dietary Protein Requirement for Macrobrachium rosenbergii Juveniles, by Jocelyn L. Antiporda, a Research Associate from the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC – AQD), (Binangonan Research Station, Binangonan, Rizal Philippines 3106).

Abstract: The dietary protein requirement of M. rosenbergii juveniles was determined in growth trials performed in indoor aquaria using rations based on fish meal and shrimp meal as the main sources of protein. Five protein levels from 20 – 40% at 5% interval were tested to assess the best growth. Mean body weights and lengths of 4 replicate treatments were subjected to analyses of variance in determining differences between protein levels. Results showed no significant differences in all variables considered. Under this laboratory feeding experiment, the prawns attained weights of 0.95 g (994% gain), 0.94 g (921% gain), 1.3 g (1417% gain), 0.95 g (996% gain) and 1.17 g (1263% gain) for 20%, 25%, 30%, 35% and 49% crude protein levels, respectively in 89 day-culture period.

From the introduction:

One of the major factors limiting the economic success in any commercial culture of a species is the food requirement. Shang and Fujimura (1977) estimated feed cost to account for about 13 – 27% of the total annual cost of production. Protein, being an important dietary constituent among animals, directly influence the formulation of diets and consequently affect the cost of production. Accumulated knowledge on the nutrient requirements of the prawn is limited and the lack of standard techniques among researches resulted to wide variations of findings thereby making direct comparisons difficult. Most of the available data relating prawn growth and dietary protein levels have been reviewed by Forster (1976), New (1976) and Wickens (1976). Data on the nutritional requirements of M. rosenbergii are scarce. Several workers have tried to develop artificial diets capable of sustaining good growth using a variety of foodstuffs (Kanazawa, et al., 1970; Cowey and Forster, 1971; Deshimaru and Shegino, 1972; Sick et al., 1972; Andrews et al., 1972; Forster, 1972; Balazs et al., 1973). Studies by Weidenbach (1982) confirmed that prawns ingest commercial pellets when available and that prawns also utilize available vegetation regardless of the presence of commercial pellets. Among the foodstuffs used, flesh of molluscs and crustaceans were found the most acceptable, producing the best growth especially among the marine prawns (Deshimaru and Shegino, 1972; Forster and Beard, 1973). Deshimaru and Shegino (1972) stated that marine prawn growth correlates with the amount of crude protein in the diet and that diets having crude protein above 60% showed high feed efficiency as a rule.

The book is subtitled: ‘An introduction to the study of zoology’. I particularly enjoy the ‘kinder, gentler’ writing style and it feels (or perhaps more accurately – reads) as though Huxley is very attuned to a more holistic approach to describing the crayfish.

The online version is supported by the original elegant woodblock illustrations and, as well, Rich has created a glossary (which was not part of the orginial edition).

This large document (93 pages), is written for the beginning aquaculturist. It focuses which plants and animals to grow, and how to grow them with a minimum investment in land and equipment. The basics are covered, and then there’s added value with information on such subjects as pond management and water recycling. The manual has numerous valuable tables and drawings. While this manual is written to be an effective guide to backyard aquaculture for Hawaii, the principles hold true anywhere.

In this book, the terms “backyard” and “small-scale” generally refer to systems larger than home aquariums, but no larger than ponds of about one acre, a size range that takes in many possibilities. Many excellent books on aquarium-keeping are available for people with that interest, and a great number of works have been written on large-scale commercial aquaculture.

This book will provide a starting point and information source for individuals interested in learning more about backyard aquaculture, or in starting up a small-scale culture system. It will present information to help you decide whether this kind of activity will be possible and enjoyable for you; suggest an orderly approach to maximize your chances for success; present some detail on how to accomplish necessary tasks and start up some specific culture systems; and serve as a source of reference materials for further or more detailed reading.

The FAO report on a workshop on Women in Aquaculture held in Rome in 1987.

The Assessment of Women Achievers in Aquaculture Workshop was held in 2004, in Charente-Maritime (Rochefort – near La Rochelle), France with the financial support of the Directorate-General Fisheries of the European Commission.

Despite these initiatives, conditions in the Third World are as challenging as ever. A. Shaleesha and V. A. Stanley report in Involvement of Rural Women in Aquaculture: An Innovative Approach that although women have proved to be competent in adopting new aquaculture technologies, their role is very much restricted and often ignored. One of the major reasons is the location of aquaculture sites and several sociocultural taboos against women who strive to earn for their family’s subsistence in rural areas. There is a gender bias in many aquaculture activities. To ensure that women utilize their full potential in profitable activities like aquaculture, it is necessary to provide capacity building support to rural women, which will eventually lead to their empowerment. In countries like India, the technology provided to women must take into account cultural aspects. One such project – backyard ornamental fish breeding and management – has been found to offer immense scope for improving the livelihood of rural women. This paper gives some practical tips for dissemination of technology in the rural sector, particularly to rural women.

An excellent case study on how seaweed farming helps women in Tanzania outlines how quite simple efforts can make a positive impact in household incomes and become literally life changing.